Introduction to plant physiology
Hopkins,William G.
Introduction to plant physiology William G. Hopkins, Norman P. A. Hüner - 4th edi. - USA John Wiley & Sons 2008 - XVIII, 503 p. figure, table,picture, color picture 28.7 cm
Includes index/glossary(489-503 p.)
Plant Cell and Water 1 Water Has Unıque Physıcal and Chemıcal Propertıes 2 The Thermal Propertıes of Water are Bıologıcally Important 3 Water Exhıbıts a Unıque Thermal Capacıty 3 Water Exhıbıts a Hıgh Heat of Fusıon and Heat of Vaporızatıon 3 Water ıs the Unıversal Solvent 4 Polarıty of Water Molecules Results in Cohesion and Adhesion 4 Water Movement may be Governed by Diffusion or by Bulk Flow 5 Bulk Flow is Driven by Hydrostatic Pressure 5 Fick's First Law Describes the Process Diffusion 5 Osmosis is the Diffusion of water Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane 6 Plant Cells Contain on Array of Selectivity Permeable Membrane 7 Osmosis in plant Cells is Indirectly Energy Dependent 8 The Chemical Potential of Water has an Osmotic as Well as a Pressure Component 9 Hydrostatic Pressure and Osmotic Pressure are Two Components of Water Potential 11 Water Potential is the Sum of its Component Potentials 11 Dynamic Flux of H2O is Associated with Changes in Water Potential 12 Aquaporins Facilities the Cellular Movement of Water 13 Two-Component Sensing /Signaling Systems are involved in Osmoregulation 15 Summary 17 Chapter Review 17 Further Reading 17 Whole Plant Water Relations 19 Transpiration is Driven by Differences in Vapor Pressure 20 The Driving Force of Transpiration is Differences in Vapor Pressure 21 The Rate of Transpiration is Influenced by Environmental Factors 22 What the effect of Humidity ? 23 What is the Effect of Temperature ? 23 What is the effect of Wind? 24 Water Conduction Occurs via Tracheary Elements 24 The Ascent of Xylem SAP is Explained by Combining Transpiration with the Cohesive Forces of Water 27 Root Pressure is Related to Root Structure 28 Water Rise By Capillarity is due to Adhesion and Surface Tension 29 The Cohesion Theory Best Explains the Ascent of Xylem Sap 30 Water Loss due to Transpiration must be Replenished 33 Soil is a Complex Medium 33 Roots Absorb and Transport Water Varies 34 Radial Movement of Water Through the Root Involves Two Possible Pathways 36 SuMMARY 37 Chapter Review 37 Further Reading 37 Why Transpiration? 25 Roots, Soils, and Nutrients Uptake 39 The Soil as a Significant Component of Most Soils 40 Colloids Presents a Large, Negativity Charged Surface Area 40 Soil Colloids Reversibly Adsorb Cations From the Soil Solution 41 The Anion Exchange Capacity of Soil Colloids is Relatively Low 41 Nutrient Uptake 42 Nutrient Uptake by Plants Requires Transport of the Nutrient Across Root Cell Membranes 42 Simple Diffusion is a Purely Physical Process 42 The Movement of Most Solutes Across Membranes Requires the Participation of Specific Transport Proteins 43 Active Transport Requires the Expenditure of Metabolic Energy 43 Selective Accumulation of Icon by Roots 46 Electrochemical Gradients and Ion Movement 46 Ions Move in Response to Electrochemical Gradients 46 The Nernst Equation Helps to Predict Whether an Ion is Exchanged Actively or Passively 47 Electrogenic Pumps are Critical for Cellular Active Transport 49 Active Transport is Driven by ATPase-Proton Pumps 49 The ATPase-Proton Pumps of Plasma Membranes and Vacuolar Membranes are Different 50 K+ Exchange is Medicated by two Classes of Transport Proteins 51 Cellular Ion Uptake Processes are Interactive 52 Root Architecture is Important to Maximize Iomn Uptake 52 A Frist Step in Mineral Uptake by Roots is Diffusion into the Apparent Free Space 53 Apparent Free Space is Equivalent to the Apoplast of the Root Epidermal and cortical Cells 54 The Radical Path of Ion Movement Through Roots 54 Ions Entering the Scale Must First be Transported From the Apparent Free Space into the Symplast 54 Ions are Actively Secreted into the Xylem Apoplast 55 Emerging Secondary Roots May Contribute to the Uptake of Some Solutes 55 Root-Microbe Interactions 56 Bacteria Other than Nitrogen Fixers Contribute to Uptake of Some Solutes 56 Mycorrhizae are Fungi that Increase the Volume of the Nutrient Depletion Zone Around Roots 57 Electrophysiology - Exploring Ion Channels 44 Plants and Inorganic Nutrients 61 Methods and Nutrient Solutions 62 Interest in Plant Nutrition is Rooted in the Study of Agriculture and Corp Productivity 62 The Use of Hydroponic Culture Helped to Define the Mineral Requirements of Plants 62 Modern Techniques Overcome Inherent Disadvantages of Simple Solution Culture 63 The Essential Nutrient Elements 65 Seventeen Elements Are Deemed to be Essential for Plant Growth and Development 65 The Essential Nutrients are Generally Classes as Either Macronutrients or Micronutrients 65 Determining Essentiality of Micronutrients Presents Special Problem 65 Beneficial Elements 66 Sodium is An Essential Micronutrient for C4 Plants 66 Silicon May be Beneficial for a Variety of Species 67 Cobalt is Required by Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria 67 Some Plants Tolerate High Concentrations of Selenium 67 Nutrient Function and Deficiency Symptoms A Plant's Requirement For a Particular Element is Defined in Terms of Critical Concentration 67 Nitrogen is a Constituent of many Critical Macromolecules 68 Phosphorus is part of the Nucleic Acid Backbone and has a Central Function in Intermediary Metabolism 69 Potassium Activates Enzymes and Functions in Osmoregulation 69 Sulphur is an Important Constituents of Proteins Coenzymes and Vitamins 70 Calcium is Important in Cell Division, Cell Adhesion and as a Second Messenger 70 Magnesium is a constituent of the Chlorophyll Molecule and an Important Regulator of Enzyme Reaction 70 Iron is Required for Chlorophyll Synthesis and Election Transfer Reactions 71 Boron Appears to have a Role in Cell Division and Elongation and Contribution to the Structural Integrity of the cell Wall Copper is a Necessary Cofactor for Oxidative Enzymes 73 Zinc is an Activator of Numerous Enzymes 73 Manganese is an Enzymes Cofactor as Well as part of the Oxygen -Evolving Complex in the Chloroplast 74 Molybdenum is a key Component of Nitrogen Metabolism 74 Chlorine has a Role in Photosynthetic Oxygen Evolution and Charge Balance Across Cellular Membranes 74 The Role of Nickel is Not Clear 74 Toxicity of Micronutrients 75 Summary 75 Chapter Review 76 Further Reading 76 Bioenergetics and ATP Synthesis 77 Bioenergetics and Energy Transformation in Living Organisms 78 The Sun is a Primary Source of Energy 78 What is Bioenergetics ? 78 The First Law of Thermodynamics Refers to Energy Conservation 79 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Refers to Entropy and Disorder 79 The Ability to do work is Dependent on the Availability of Free Energy 80 Free Energy is Related to Chemical Equilibria 80 Energy Transformation and Coupled Reactions 81 Free Energy of ATP is Associated with Coupled Phosphate Transfer Reactions 81 Free Energy Changes are Associated with Coupled Oxidation -Reduction Reactions 83 Energy Transduction and the Chemiosmosis Synthesis of ATP 85 85 Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Synthesize ATP by Chemiosmosis 90 Summary 91 Chapter Review 91 Further Reading 91 Plastid Biogenesis 86 The Dual Role of Sunlight Energy and Information 93 The Physical Nature of Light 93 Light is Electromagnetic Energy Which Exists in two Forms 93 Light can be Characterized as a wave phenomenon 94 Light can be Characterized as Stream of Discrete Particles 94 Light Energy can Interact with Matter 95 How Does one Illustrate the Efficiency of Light Absorption and its Physiological Effects 97 Accurate Measurement of Light is Important in Photobiology 98 The Natural Radiation Environment 99 Photoreceptors Absorbs Light for use in a Physiological Process 100 Chlorophylls are Primarily Responsible for Harvesting Light Energy for Photosynthesis 100 Phycobilin Serve as Accessory Light- Harvesting Pigments in Red Algae and Cyanobacteria 102 Carotenoids Account for the Autumn Colors 103 Cryptochrome and phytotropin are Photoreceptors sensitive to Blue Light and UV-A radiation 103 UV-B Radiation May Act as a Developmental Signal 105 Flavonoids Provide the myriad flower Colors and Act as a Natural Sunscreen 105 Betacyanin and Beets 106 Summary 107 Chapter Review 107 Further Reading 107 109 Leaves are Photosynthetic Machines that Maximize 110 Photosynthesis is an Oxidation -Reduction Process 112 Photosynthetic Electron Transport 114 Photosystems are Major Components of the Photosynthetic is an Electron Transport Chain 114 Photosystem II Oxidizes Water to Produce Oxygen 117 The Cytochrome Complex and Photosystem I Oxidize Plastoquinol 119 Photophosphorylation is the light dependent synthesis of ATP 120 lateral Heterogenicity if the Unequal Distribution of Thylakoid Complexes 122 Cyanobacteria are Oxygenic 123 Inhibitors of Photosynthetic Electron Transport are Effective Herbicides 124 127 Chapter Review 127 Further Reading 128 Historical Perspective -The Discovery or Photosynthesis 113 The Case for Two Photosystems 125 Energy Conservation in Photosynthesis CO2 Assimilation 129 Stomatal Complex Control Leaf Gas Exchange and Water Loss 130 C02 Enters the Leaf by Diffusion 132 How Do Stomata Open and Close ? 133 Stomatal Movements are also Comtrolled by External Environmental Factors 135 Light aqnd Carbon Dioxide Regulate Stomatal Opening 135 Stomatal Movements Follow Endogenous Rhythms 136 The Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction (PCR) Cycle 136 The PCR4 Cycle Reduce CO2 to Produce a Three- Carbon Sugar 137 The Carbohydrates Reaction Fixes the Co2 137 ATP and NADPH are Consumed in the PCR cycle What are the Energetic of the PCR Cycle 139 The PCR Cycle is Highly Regulated 139 The Regeneration of RuBP is Autocatalytic 140 Rubisco Activity Is Regulated Indirectly by Light 140 Other PCR Enzymes are also Regulated by Light 141 Chloroplasts of C3 Plants Also Exhibits Competing Carbon Oxidation Processes 142 Rubisco Activity the Fixation of Both CO2 and O2 142 Why Photorespiration ? 143 In Addition to PCR, Chloroplasts Exhibit an Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Cycle 145 Summary 149 Chapter Review 149 Further Reading Enzymes 146 Allocation, Tranlocation and Partitioning of Phostassimilates 151 Starch and Sucrose are Biosynthesized in Two Different Compartments 152 Starch is Biosynthesized in the Stroma 152 Sucrose is Biosynthesized in the Cytosol 153 Starch and Sucrose Biosynthesis are Competitive Processes 154 Fructan Biosynthesis is an Alternative Pathway for Carbon Allocation 156 Photassililates are translocated Over Long Distance 156 What is the Composition of the Photoassimilate Translocated by the Pheom 158 Sieve Elements Are the Principles Cellular Constituents of the Phloem 1460 159 Phloem Exudate Contains a Significant Amount of Protein 160 Direction of Translocation is determined by Source -Sink Relationship 161 Phloem Translocation Occurs by Mass Transfer 161 Phloem Loading and Unloading Regulate Translocation and Partitioning 163 Phloem Loading Can Occur Symplastically or Apoplastically 164 Phloem Loading Unloading May Occur Symplastically of Apoplasticaly 166 Photoassimilate is Distributed Between Different Metabolic Pathway and plant Organs 166 Photoassimilate May be Allocated to a Variety of Metabolic Functions in the Source or the Sink 167 Distribution of Photoassimilates Between Competing Sinks is Determined by Sink Strength 168 Xenobiotic Agrochemicals are Translocated in the Phloem 170 Summary 170 Chapter Review 171 Further Reading 171 Cellular Respiration Unlocking the Energy Stored In Photoassimilates 173 Cellular Respiration Consists of a Series of Pathways by which Photoassimilates are oxidized 174 Starch Mobilization 175 The Hydrolytic Degradation of Stomach Produces Glucose 175 α-Amylase Produce Maltose and Limit Destrins 176 β-Amylase Produce Maltose 176 Limit Dextrinase is a Debranching Enzyme 176 α-Glucosidase Hydrolyses Maltose 177 Starch Phosphorolytic Degradation of Starch 177 Fructan Mobilization is Constitutive 178 Glycolysis Converts Sugars to Pyruvic Acid 178 Hexoses Must be Phosphorylated to Enter Glycolysis 178 Triose Phosphates are Oxidized to Pyruvate 180 The Oxidation Pentose Phosphate Pathway is an Alternative Route for Glucose Metabolism 180 The Fate of Pyruvate Depend on the Availability of Molecular Oxygen 181 Oxidative Respiration is Carried Out by the Mitochindrion 182 In the Presence of Molecular Oxygen Pyruvate is Completely Oxidative to O2 and water By the Citric Acid Cycles 182 Electron Removed From Substrate in the Citric Acid Cycle are passed to Molecular Oxygen Through the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain 183 Energy is Conserved in the Form of ATP in Accordance with Chemiosmosis 185 Plants Contain Several Alternative Electron Transport Pathways 186 Plant Mitochondria Contain External Dehydrogenase 186 Plants Have a Rotenone -Insensitive NADH dehydrogenases 186 Plants Exhibits Cyanide-Resistant Respiration 187 Many Seeds Store Carbons as Oils that are Converted to Sugar 188 Respiration Provides Carbon Skeletons for Biosynthesis 189 Respiratory Rate Varies with Development and Metabolic State Respiration Rate Respond to Environmental Conditions 192 Light 192 Temperature 192 Oxygen Availability 193 Summary 193 Chapter Review Further Reading 194 Nitrogen Assimilation 195 The Nitrogen Cycles A Complex Pattern of Exchanges 195 Ammonification. Nitrification and Denitrification and Essential Process in the Nitrogen Cycle 196 Biological Nitrogen Fixation is Exclusively Prokaryotic 196 Some Nitrogen Fixating bacteria are Free-Living Organisms 196 Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Involves Specific Associations Between Bacteria and Plant 197 Legumes Exhibit Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation 197 Rhizobia Infect the Host Roots, Which Induce Nodule Development 198 The Biochemistry of Nitrogen Fixation 200 Nitrogen Fixation is Energetically Costly 201 Dinitrogenase is Sensitive to oxygen 202 Dinitrogenase Results in the Production of Hydrogen Gas 202 The Genetics of Nitrogen Fixation 203 NIF Gene Code for Dinitrogenase 203 NOD Genes and NIF Gene Regulate Nodulation 203 What is the Source of Home For Leghemoglobin 204 NH3 Produced by Nitrogen Fixation is Converted to Organic Nitrogen 204 Ammonium is Assimilated by GS/ GOGAT 204 PII Protein Regulate GS/ GOGAT 205 Fixed Nitrogen is Exported as Asparagine and Ureides 206 Plants Generally Take Up Nitrogen in the Form of Nitrate 207 Nitrogen Cycling Simultaneous import and Export 208 Agricultural and Ecosystem Productivity is Dependent on Nitrogen Supply 209 Summary 211 Chapter Review 211 Further Reading 211 Carbon and Nitrogen Assimilation and plant Productivity 213 Productivity Refers to an Increase in Biomass 213 Carbon Economy is Dependent on the Balance Between Photosynthesis and Respiration 214 Productivity is Influenced by a Variety of Environment Factors 215 Fluence Rate 215 Available CO2 216 Temperature 218 Soil Water Potential 219 Nitrogen Supply Limits Productivity 219 Leaf Factors 220 Summary 221 Chapter Review 222 Factor Reading 222 What is plant Stress? 223 Plant Respond to Stress in Several Different ways 224 Too Much Light Inhibits Photosynthesis 225 The DI Repair Cycle Overcomes Photodamage to PSII 227 Water Stress is Persistent Threat to Plant Survival 229 Water Stress leads to Membrane Damage 230 Photosynthesis is Particularly Sensitive to Water Stress 230 Stomata Respond to Water Deficit 230 Plant are Sensitive to Fluctuations In Temperature 233 Many Plant are Chilling Sensitive 233 High -Temperature Stress Causes Protein Denaturation 234 Insect Pests and Disease Represent Potential Biotic Stresses 235 Systemic Acquired Resistance Represents a Plants Immune Response 236 Jasmonates Mediate Insect and Disease Resistance 237 There are Feature Common to all Stresses 237 Summary 238 Chapter Review 238 Further Reading 238 Monitoring Plant Stress By Chlorophyll Fluorescence 238 Acclimation to Environmental Stress 241 Plant Acclimation is a Time -Dependent Phenomenon 242 Acclimation is Initiated by Rapid Short-Term Response 242 State Transitions Regulate Energy Distribution in Response to Changes to Spectral Distribution 242 Carotenoids Serve a Dual Function Light Harvesting and Photoprotection 242 Osmotic Adjustment is a Response to Water Stress 247 Low Temperatures Induce Lipid Unsaturation and Cold Regulated Gene in Cold Tolerant Plants 248 Q10 For Plant Respiration Varies as a Function of Temperature 248 Long Term Acclimation Alters Phenotype 249 Light Regulates Nuclear Gene Expression and Photoacclimation 249 Does the Photosynthesis Apparatus Respond to Changes in Light Quality ? 252 Acclimation to Drought Affects Shoot-Root Ratio and Leaf Area 253 Cold Acclimation Mimics Photoacclimation 254 Freezing Tolerance in Herbaceous Species is a Complex Interaction Between Light and Low Temperature 255 Cold Acclimated Plants Secrete Antifreeze Proteins 256 North Temperature Woody Plant Survive Freezing Stress 256 Plant Adjust Photosynthetic Capacity in Response to High Temperature 257 Oxygen May Protect During Acclimation to Various Stresses 258 Summary 259 Chapter Review 259 Further Reading 260 Adaptations to the Environment 261 Sun and Shade Adapted Plants Respond Differently to Irradiance 262 C4 Plants are Adapted to High Temperature and Drought 263 The C4 Syndrome is Another Biochemical Mechanism to Assimilate Co2 263 The C4 Syndrome is Usually Associated with Kranz Leaf Anatomy 265 The Syndrome is Differentially Sensitive to Temperature 265 The C4 Syndrome is Differentially Sensitive to Temperature 265 The C4 Syndrome is Associated with water Stress 266 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism is an Adaptation to Desert Life 267 Is CAM A Variation of the C4 Syndrome ? 268 CAM Plan an Particularly Suited to Dry Habitats 269 C4 and CAM Photosynthesis Require Precise Regulation and Temporal Integration 269 Plant Biomes Reflect Myriad Physiological Adaptations 270 Tropical Rain Forest Biomes Exhibits the Greatest Plant Biodiversity 270 Evapotranspiration is s Major Contributors to Weather 271 Desert Perennials are Adapted to Reduce Transpiration and Heat Load Desert Annuals Are Ephemeral 273 Summary 273 Chapter Review 274 Further Reading 274 Development: An Overview 275 Growth, Differentiation, and Development 275 Development is the sum of Growth and Differentiation 275 Growth is an Irreversible Increase to Size 276 Differentiation refers to To Qualitative Changes that Normally Accompany Growth 276 Meristems are Centers of Plant Growth 277 Seed Development and Germination 279 Seeds are formed in the Flower 279 Seed Development and Maturation 280 Seed Germination 281 The Level and Activities of Various Hormones Changes Dramatically During Seed Development 283 Many Seeds Have Additional Requirements for Germination 284 From Embryo to Adult 285 Senescence and Programmed Cell Death are the Find Stages of Development 286 Summary 287 Chapter Review 287 Further Reading 288 Development in a Mutant Weed 282 Growth and Development of Cells 289 Growth of Plant Cells is Complicated by the Presence of A cell wall 289 The Primary Cell wall is a Network of Cellulose Microfibrils and Cross- Linking Glycans 289 The Cellulose -Glycan lattice is Embedded in a Matrix of Pectin and Protein 290 Cellulose Microfibrils are Assembled at the Plasma Membrane as They Extruded into the Cell wall 292 Cell Division 292 The Cell Cycle 292 Cytokinesis 293 Plasmodesmata are Cytoplasmic Channels that Extend Through the Wall to connect the Protoplasts of Adjacent Cells 294 Cell walls and Cell Growth 294 Cell Growth is Division by Water Uptake and Limited by the Strength and Rigidity of the Cell Wall Extension of the Cell Wall Requires Wall Loosening Events that Enable Load Bearing Elements in the Wall to Yield to Turgor Pressure 296 Wall Loosening and Cell Expansion is Stimulated by Low ph and Expansion 297 In Maturing Cells a Secondary Cell Wall is Deposited on the Inside of the Primary Wall 298 Acontinous Stream of Signals Provides Information That Plant Cell Use to Modify Development 298 Signal Perception and Transduction 299 The G-Protein System is a Ubiquitous Receptor System 299 Signal Transduction Includes a Diverse Array of Second Messengers 300 Protein Kinase -Based Signaling 300 Phospholipid Based Signaling 300 Calcium -Based Signaling 301 Transcriptional -Based Signaling 303 There is Extensive Crosstalk Among Signal Pathways 303 Summary 304 Chapter Review 304 Further Reading 304 Cytoskeleton 295 Ubiquitin and Proteasomes-* Cleaning up Unwanted Proteins 302 Hormones I Auxins 305 The Hormone Concept in Plant 305 Auxins is Distributed Throughout the Plant 306 The Principal Auxins in Plants in Indole -3-Acetic Acid (IAA) 307 IAA ıs Synthesızed From the Amıno Acıd I-Tryptophan 309 Some Plants do not Requıre Tryptophan for IAA bıosynthesıs 310 IAA may be stored as Inactıve 310 IAA ıs Deactıvated by Oxıdatıon and Conjugatıon wıth Amıno Acıds 311 Auxıns ıs Involved ın Vırtually Every Stage of Plant Development 311 311 Auxın Regulates Vascular Dıfferentıatıon 311 Auxın Control the Growth of Auxiliary Buds 313 The Acıd -Growth Hypothesıs Explaıns Auxın Control of Cell Enlargement 314 Maıntenance of Auxıns Induced Growth and Other Auxın Effects Requıres Gene Activation 316 Many Aspects of Plant Developments are Lınked to the Polar Transport of Auxıns 317 Summary 320 Chapter Revıew 321 Further 321 Dıscoverıng Auxın 307 Commercıal Applıcatıons of Auxıns 314 Hormones II Gıbberellıns 323 There are a Large Number of Gıbberellıns 323 There are Three Prıncıples Sıtes For Gıbberellın Bıosynthesıs 324 Gıbberellıns are Terpenes Sharıng a Core Pathway wıth Several Other Hormones and a Wıde Range of Secondary Products 325 Gıbberellıns are Synthesızed from Geranylgeranyl Pyrophosphate (GGPP) 327 Gibberellins are Deactivated by 2β-Hydroxylation 329 Growth Retardants Block the Synthesis of Gibberellins 329 Gibberellins Transport is Poorly Understood 330 Gibberellins Affect Many Aspects of Plant Growth and Development Gibberellins Stimulate Hyper-elongation of Intact Stems Especially in Dwarf and Rosette Plant 330 Gibberellins Stimulate Mobilization of Nutrient Reserves During Germination of Cereal Grains 332 Gibberellins Act by Regulating Gene EXPRESSION 333 Summary 336 Chapter Review 336 Further Reading 339 Discovery of Gibberellins 325 Commercial Applications of Gibberellins 330 Dells Proteins and the Green Revolution 335 Hormones III Cytokines 339 339 Cytokines Biosynthesis Begins with the Condensation of an Isopentenyl Group with the Amino Group of Andesine 339 Cytokinin's may be Deactivated by Conjugation or Oxidation 340 Cytokinins are synthesized Primarily in the Root and Translocated in the Xylem 341 Cytokinin are Required for Cell Proliferation 343 Cytokinin Regulate Progression through the Cell Cycle 343 The Ratio of Cytikinins and Auxin Control Roots and Shoots Initiation in Callus Tissues and the Growth of Axillary Buds 344 Crown Gall Tumors are Genetically Engineered to Overproduce Cytokinin and Auxin 345 Cytokinin Delay Senescence 346 Cytokinin Have an Important Role in Maintaining the Shoot Meristem 347 Cytokinin Levels in the Shoot Apical Meristem Are Regulated by Master Control Gene 348 Cytokinin Receptor and Signaling 350 The Cytokinin Receptor is a Membrane -Based Histidine Kinase 350 The Cytokinin Signaling Chain Involves a Multistep Transfer of Phosphoryl Groups to Response Regulators 351 Summary 353 Chapter Review 353 Further Reading 354 The Discovery of Cytokinins 341 Tissue Culture has Made Possible Large-Scale Closing of Plants by Micropropagation 345 Hormones IV : Abscisic Acid Ethylene and Brassinosteroids 355 Abscisic Acid is Synthesized From a Carotenoid Precursor 355 Abscisic Acid is Synthesized to phaseic Acid by Oxidation 357 Abscisic Acid Regulate 357 Abscisic Acid Regulates Embryo Maturation and Seed Germination 358 Abscisic acid Mediates Response to Water Stress 358 Other Abscisic Acid Response 359 ABA perception and Signal Transduction 359 Ethylene is Synthesized From the Amino Acid Methionine 362 Excess Ethylene is Subject to Oxidation 362 The Study of Ethylene Presents a Unique Set of Problems 364 Ethylene Affects Many Aspects of Vegetative Developments 364 Ethylene Receptors and Signaling 365 Brassinosteriods 367 Brassinosteriods are Polyhydroxylated Sterols Derived From the Triterpene Squalene 367 Several Route for Deactivation of Brassinsteroids have been Identified 369 Braasinolde Receptors and Signaling 369 Summary 369 Chapter Review 370 Further Readıng 370 The Dıscovery of Abscısıc Acıd 356 The Discovery Ethylene 363 Mitogenactivated Protein Kinetics: A Widespread Mechanism For Signal Transduction 366 Photomorphogenesis Responding to Light 373 Photomorphogenesis is Initiated by Photoreceptors 373 Phytochromes Responding to Red and Far Red Light 374 Photoreversibility is the Hallmark of Phytochrome Action 376 Conversion of Pr to Pfr in Etiolated Seeding leads to a loss of both Pfr and Total phytochrome 377 Light Established a State of Dynamic Photoequilibrium between pr and pfr 378 Photochrome Response can be Grouped According to their fluence Requirements Cryptochrome: Responding to Blue and UV-A Light 379 Photochrome and Cryptochrome mediate numerous Developmental Responses 379 Seed Germination 379 De-Etiolation 380 Shade Avoidance 381 Detecting end of Day Signals 381 382 Rapid Photochrome Response 382 Phy A may Function to Detect the Presence of Light 383 Chemistry and Mode of Action of Phytochrome and Cryptochrome 383 Phytochrome is a Phycobiliprotin 383 phytochrome Signal Transduction 384 Cryptochrome Structure is similar to DNA repairs enzymes 386 Cryptochrome Signal Transduction 386 Some plant Responses are Regulated by UV-B Light 387 De- Etiolation in Arabidopsis : A Case Study in Photoreceptor Interactions 387 Summary 388 Chapter Review 389 Further Reading Historical Perspectives -The Discovery of Phytochrome 389 Tropisms and Nastic Movements: Orienting Plants in Space 391 Phototropism: Reaching for the Sun 392 Phototropism is a response to a light Gradient 392 Phototropism is a Blue light Response 393 Phototropism Orients a plants for Optional Photosynthesis 393 Fluence Response Curves Illustrate the Complexity of Phototropic Response 394 The Phototropiv Response is Attributed to a Lateral Redistribution of Diffusible Auxin 395 Phototropism and Related Response are Regulated by a Family of Blue Sensitive Flavoproteins 396 A Hybrid Red/Blue Light Photoreceptor has been Isolated form a Fern 397 Phytotropin Activity and Signal Chain 397 Phototropism in Green Plants is not well Understood 398 Gravitropism 398 Gravitropism is more than Simple Up and Down 399 The Gravitational Stimulus is the Product of Intensity and Time 399 Root Gravitropism Occurs in four Phases 401 Nastic Movements 405 Nyctinasty Movements are Rhythmic Movements Involving Reversible Turgor Changes 406 Nyctinasty Movements are due to Ion Fluxes and Resulting Osmotic Responses in Specialized Motor Cells 407 409 Summary 410 Chapter Review 411 Further Reading 411 Methods in the Study of Gravitropism 400 Measuring Time Controlling Development by photoperiod and Endogenous 413 Photoperiodism Photoperiodic Response may be characterized by a variety of response types 414 Critical Day Length Defines Short-Day and Long -Day Response 415 Plants Actually measure the Length of the Dark Period 417 Phytochrome and Cryptochrome are the Photoreceptors for Photoperiodism 418 The Photoperiodic Signal is perceived by the leaves 419 Control of Flowering by Photoperiod Requires a transmissible Signal 420 Photoperiodism normally Requires a period of High Fluence Light Before or After the Dark Period 421 The Biological Clock 423 Clock Driven Rhythms persist Under Constant Conditions 423 Light Roots the Biological Clock on a daily basis 423 The Circadian Clock is temperature Compensated 426 The Circadian Clock is a Significant Component in Photoperiodic Time Measurement 427 Daylength Measurement Involves an Interaction Between an External Light Signal and a Circadian Rhythm 428 The Circadian Clock is a Negative Feedback loop 429 Photoperiodism in Nature 430 Summary 431 Chapter Review 432 Further Reading 432 Historical Perspectives: The Discovery of Photoperiodism 414 Historical Perspectives The Biological Clock 422 Flowering and Fruit Development 433 Flowering Initiation and Developments Involves Sequential Action of three Sets of Genes 433 Flowering -Time Genes Influence the Duration of Vegetative Growth 434 Floral -Identity Genes and Organ-Identity Genes Overlap in Time and Function 436 Temperature can Alter the Flowering Response to Photoperiod 437 Vernalization Occurs most Commonly in Winter Animals and Biennials 438 The Effective Temperature for Vernalization is Variable 439 The Vernalization Treatment is Perceived by the Shoots Apex 440 The Vernalized State is Transmissible 440 Gibberellin and Vernalization Operate Through Independent Genetic Pathways 440 Three Genes Determines the Vernalization Requirements in Cereals 441 Fruits set and Developments is Regulated by Hormones 442 The Development of Fleshy Fruits can be Divided into Five Phase 442 Fruits set is Triggered by Auxin 442 Ripening is Triggered by Ethylene in Climacteric Fruits 444 Summary 445 Chapter Review 445 446 Ethylene its a Gas 445 Temperature : Plant Development and Distribution 447 Temperature in the Plant Environment 447 Bud Dormancy Bud Dormancy is Induced by Photoperiod 449 A Period of LOW temperature IS required 451 Seed Dormancy 451 Numerous Factors Influence Seed Dormancy 451 Temperature has a Significant Impact on Seed Dormancy 453 Thermotropism is a Response to Alternating Temperature 454 Temperature Influence Plant Distribution 454 Summary 457 Chapter Review 457 Further Reading 457 Bulbs and Corns 450 Secondary Metabolites 459 Secondary Metabolites A.K.A Natural Products 459 Terpenes 460 The Terpenes are a Chemically and Functionally Diverse Group of Molecules 460 Terpenes are Constituents of Essentials Oils 460 Steroids and Sterols are Tetracyclic Triterpenoids 462 Glycosides 463 Saponins are Terpenes Glycosides With Detergents Properties 464 Cardiac Glycosides are Highly Toxic Steroids Glycosides 465 Cyanogenic glycosides are A Natural Source of Hydrogen Cyanide Glucosinolates are Sulfur Containing Precursors to Mustard Oils 467 Polyterpenes Includes the Carotenoids Pigments and Naturals Rubber 462 Glycosides 463 Saponins are Terpenes Glycosides with Detergents Properties 464 Cyanogenic Glycosides are A Natural Source of Hydrogen Cyanide 466 Glucosinolates are Sulphur-Containing Precursors to Mustard Oils 466 Phenylpropanoids 467 Shikimic Acid is a Key InIntermediate in the Synthesis of Both Aromatic Amino Acids and Phynylpropanoids 468 the Simplest Phenolic Molecules are Essentially deaminated Versions of the Corresponding Amino Acids Coumarin and Coumarin Derivatives Function as Anticoagulant s Lignin is a Major Structural Component of Secondary Cell Wall Flavonoid and Stilbenes have parallel Biosynthesis Pathway Tannins Denature Proteins and Add an Astringent Taste to Foods Secondary Metabolites are Active Against Insect5s and Disease Some Terpenes and Isoflavones Have Insecticidal and Anti-Microbial and Anti-Microbial Activity Recognizing Potential Pathogens Salicylic Acids Shikimic Acid Derivative Triggers Systemic Acquired Resistance Jasmonates are Limited to Ubiquitin-Related Protein Degradation Alkaloids are a Large Famiy of Chemically Unrelated Molecules Alkaloids are noted Primarily for their Pharmacological Properties and Medical Applications Like Many other Secondary Metabolites Alkaloids Serves as Preformed Chemical Defense ,molecules Summary Chapter Review Further Reading Building Block: Lipids Proteins and Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Carbohydrates Monosaccharides polysaccharides Index/Glossary
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Bitki fizyolojisi
Plant physiology
571.2 / H67 2008
Introduction to plant physiology William G. Hopkins, Norman P. A. Hüner - 4th edi. - USA John Wiley & Sons 2008 - XVIII, 503 p. figure, table,picture, color picture 28.7 cm
Includes index/glossary(489-503 p.)
Plant Cell and Water 1 Water Has Unıque Physıcal and Chemıcal Propertıes 2 The Thermal Propertıes of Water are Bıologıcally Important 3 Water Exhıbıts a Unıque Thermal Capacıty 3 Water Exhıbıts a Hıgh Heat of Fusıon and Heat of Vaporızatıon 3 Water ıs the Unıversal Solvent 4 Polarıty of Water Molecules Results in Cohesion and Adhesion 4 Water Movement may be Governed by Diffusion or by Bulk Flow 5 Bulk Flow is Driven by Hydrostatic Pressure 5 Fick's First Law Describes the Process Diffusion 5 Osmosis is the Diffusion of water Across a Selectively Permeable Membrane 6 Plant Cells Contain on Array of Selectivity Permeable Membrane 7 Osmosis in plant Cells is Indirectly Energy Dependent 8 The Chemical Potential of Water has an Osmotic as Well as a Pressure Component 9 Hydrostatic Pressure and Osmotic Pressure are Two Components of Water Potential 11 Water Potential is the Sum of its Component Potentials 11 Dynamic Flux of H2O is Associated with Changes in Water Potential 12 Aquaporins Facilities the Cellular Movement of Water 13 Two-Component Sensing /Signaling Systems are involved in Osmoregulation 15 Summary 17 Chapter Review 17 Further Reading 17 Whole Plant Water Relations 19 Transpiration is Driven by Differences in Vapor Pressure 20 The Driving Force of Transpiration is Differences in Vapor Pressure 21 The Rate of Transpiration is Influenced by Environmental Factors 22 What the effect of Humidity ? 23 What is the Effect of Temperature ? 23 What is the effect of Wind? 24 Water Conduction Occurs via Tracheary Elements 24 The Ascent of Xylem SAP is Explained by Combining Transpiration with the Cohesive Forces of Water 27 Root Pressure is Related to Root Structure 28 Water Rise By Capillarity is due to Adhesion and Surface Tension 29 The Cohesion Theory Best Explains the Ascent of Xylem Sap 30 Water Loss due to Transpiration must be Replenished 33 Soil is a Complex Medium 33 Roots Absorb and Transport Water Varies 34 Radial Movement of Water Through the Root Involves Two Possible Pathways 36 SuMMARY 37 Chapter Review 37 Further Reading 37 Why Transpiration? 25 Roots, Soils, and Nutrients Uptake 39 The Soil as a Significant Component of Most Soils 40 Colloids Presents a Large, Negativity Charged Surface Area 40 Soil Colloids Reversibly Adsorb Cations From the Soil Solution 41 The Anion Exchange Capacity of Soil Colloids is Relatively Low 41 Nutrient Uptake 42 Nutrient Uptake by Plants Requires Transport of the Nutrient Across Root Cell Membranes 42 Simple Diffusion is a Purely Physical Process 42 The Movement of Most Solutes Across Membranes Requires the Participation of Specific Transport Proteins 43 Active Transport Requires the Expenditure of Metabolic Energy 43 Selective Accumulation of Icon by Roots 46 Electrochemical Gradients and Ion Movement 46 Ions Move in Response to Electrochemical Gradients 46 The Nernst Equation Helps to Predict Whether an Ion is Exchanged Actively or Passively 47 Electrogenic Pumps are Critical for Cellular Active Transport 49 Active Transport is Driven by ATPase-Proton Pumps 49 The ATPase-Proton Pumps of Plasma Membranes and Vacuolar Membranes are Different 50 K+ Exchange is Medicated by two Classes of Transport Proteins 51 Cellular Ion Uptake Processes are Interactive 52 Root Architecture is Important to Maximize Iomn Uptake 52 A Frist Step in Mineral Uptake by Roots is Diffusion into the Apparent Free Space 53 Apparent Free Space is Equivalent to the Apoplast of the Root Epidermal and cortical Cells 54 The Radical Path of Ion Movement Through Roots 54 Ions Entering the Scale Must First be Transported From the Apparent Free Space into the Symplast 54 Ions are Actively Secreted into the Xylem Apoplast 55 Emerging Secondary Roots May Contribute to the Uptake of Some Solutes 55 Root-Microbe Interactions 56 Bacteria Other than Nitrogen Fixers Contribute to Uptake of Some Solutes 56 Mycorrhizae are Fungi that Increase the Volume of the Nutrient Depletion Zone Around Roots 57 Electrophysiology - Exploring Ion Channels 44 Plants and Inorganic Nutrients 61 Methods and Nutrient Solutions 62 Interest in Plant Nutrition is Rooted in the Study of Agriculture and Corp Productivity 62 The Use of Hydroponic Culture Helped to Define the Mineral Requirements of Plants 62 Modern Techniques Overcome Inherent Disadvantages of Simple Solution Culture 63 The Essential Nutrient Elements 65 Seventeen Elements Are Deemed to be Essential for Plant Growth and Development 65 The Essential Nutrients are Generally Classes as Either Macronutrients or Micronutrients 65 Determining Essentiality of Micronutrients Presents Special Problem 65 Beneficial Elements 66 Sodium is An Essential Micronutrient for C4 Plants 66 Silicon May be Beneficial for a Variety of Species 67 Cobalt is Required by Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria 67 Some Plants Tolerate High Concentrations of Selenium 67 Nutrient Function and Deficiency Symptoms A Plant's Requirement For a Particular Element is Defined in Terms of Critical Concentration 67 Nitrogen is a Constituent of many Critical Macromolecules 68 Phosphorus is part of the Nucleic Acid Backbone and has a Central Function in Intermediary Metabolism 69 Potassium Activates Enzymes and Functions in Osmoregulation 69 Sulphur is an Important Constituents of Proteins Coenzymes and Vitamins 70 Calcium is Important in Cell Division, Cell Adhesion and as a Second Messenger 70 Magnesium is a constituent of the Chlorophyll Molecule and an Important Regulator of Enzyme Reaction 70 Iron is Required for Chlorophyll Synthesis and Election Transfer Reactions 71 Boron Appears to have a Role in Cell Division and Elongation and Contribution to the Structural Integrity of the cell Wall Copper is a Necessary Cofactor for Oxidative Enzymes 73 Zinc is an Activator of Numerous Enzymes 73 Manganese is an Enzymes Cofactor as Well as part of the Oxygen -Evolving Complex in the Chloroplast 74 Molybdenum is a key Component of Nitrogen Metabolism 74 Chlorine has a Role in Photosynthetic Oxygen Evolution and Charge Balance Across Cellular Membranes 74 The Role of Nickel is Not Clear 74 Toxicity of Micronutrients 75 Summary 75 Chapter Review 76 Further Reading 76 Bioenergetics and ATP Synthesis 77 Bioenergetics and Energy Transformation in Living Organisms 78 The Sun is a Primary Source of Energy 78 What is Bioenergetics ? 78 The First Law of Thermodynamics Refers to Energy Conservation 79 The Second Law of Thermodynamics Refers to Entropy and Disorder 79 The Ability to do work is Dependent on the Availability of Free Energy 80 Free Energy is Related to Chemical Equilibria 80 Energy Transformation and Coupled Reactions 81 Free Energy of ATP is Associated with Coupled Phosphate Transfer Reactions 81 Free Energy Changes are Associated with Coupled Oxidation -Reduction Reactions 83 Energy Transduction and the Chemiosmosis Synthesis of ATP 85 85 Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Synthesize ATP by Chemiosmosis 90 Summary 91 Chapter Review 91 Further Reading 91 Plastid Biogenesis 86 The Dual Role of Sunlight Energy and Information 93 The Physical Nature of Light 93 Light is Electromagnetic Energy Which Exists in two Forms 93 Light can be Characterized as a wave phenomenon 94 Light can be Characterized as Stream of Discrete Particles 94 Light Energy can Interact with Matter 95 How Does one Illustrate the Efficiency of Light Absorption and its Physiological Effects 97 Accurate Measurement of Light is Important in Photobiology 98 The Natural Radiation Environment 99 Photoreceptors Absorbs Light for use in a Physiological Process 100 Chlorophylls are Primarily Responsible for Harvesting Light Energy for Photosynthesis 100 Phycobilin Serve as Accessory Light- Harvesting Pigments in Red Algae and Cyanobacteria 102 Carotenoids Account for the Autumn Colors 103 Cryptochrome and phytotropin are Photoreceptors sensitive to Blue Light and UV-A radiation 103 UV-B Radiation May Act as a Developmental Signal 105 Flavonoids Provide the myriad flower Colors and Act as a Natural Sunscreen 105 Betacyanin and Beets 106 Summary 107 Chapter Review 107 Further Reading 107 109 Leaves are Photosynthetic Machines that Maximize 110 Photosynthesis is an Oxidation -Reduction Process 112 Photosynthetic Electron Transport 114 Photosystems are Major Components of the Photosynthetic is an Electron Transport Chain 114 Photosystem II Oxidizes Water to Produce Oxygen 117 The Cytochrome Complex and Photosystem I Oxidize Plastoquinol 119 Photophosphorylation is the light dependent synthesis of ATP 120 lateral Heterogenicity if the Unequal Distribution of Thylakoid Complexes 122 Cyanobacteria are Oxygenic 123 Inhibitors of Photosynthetic Electron Transport are Effective Herbicides 124 127 Chapter Review 127 Further Reading 128 Historical Perspective -The Discovery or Photosynthesis 113 The Case for Two Photosystems 125 Energy Conservation in Photosynthesis CO2 Assimilation 129 Stomatal Complex Control Leaf Gas Exchange and Water Loss 130 C02 Enters the Leaf by Diffusion 132 How Do Stomata Open and Close ? 133 Stomatal Movements are also Comtrolled by External Environmental Factors 135 Light aqnd Carbon Dioxide Regulate Stomatal Opening 135 Stomatal Movements Follow Endogenous Rhythms 136 The Photosynthetic Carbon Reduction (PCR) Cycle 136 The PCR4 Cycle Reduce CO2 to Produce a Three- Carbon Sugar 137 The Carbohydrates Reaction Fixes the Co2 137 ATP and NADPH are Consumed in the PCR cycle What are the Energetic of the PCR Cycle 139 The PCR Cycle is Highly Regulated 139 The Regeneration of RuBP is Autocatalytic 140 Rubisco Activity Is Regulated Indirectly by Light 140 Other PCR Enzymes are also Regulated by Light 141 Chloroplasts of C3 Plants Also Exhibits Competing Carbon Oxidation Processes 142 Rubisco Activity the Fixation of Both CO2 and O2 142 Why Photorespiration ? 143 In Addition to PCR, Chloroplasts Exhibit an Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Cycle 145 Summary 149 Chapter Review 149 Further Reading Enzymes 146 Allocation, Tranlocation and Partitioning of Phostassimilates 151 Starch and Sucrose are Biosynthesized in Two Different Compartments 152 Starch is Biosynthesized in the Stroma 152 Sucrose is Biosynthesized in the Cytosol 153 Starch and Sucrose Biosynthesis are Competitive Processes 154 Fructan Biosynthesis is an Alternative Pathway for Carbon Allocation 156 Photassililates are translocated Over Long Distance 156 What is the Composition of the Photoassimilate Translocated by the Pheom 158 Sieve Elements Are the Principles Cellular Constituents of the Phloem 1460 159 Phloem Exudate Contains a Significant Amount of Protein 160 Direction of Translocation is determined by Source -Sink Relationship 161 Phloem Translocation Occurs by Mass Transfer 161 Phloem Loading and Unloading Regulate Translocation and Partitioning 163 Phloem Loading Can Occur Symplastically or Apoplastically 164 Phloem Loading Unloading May Occur Symplastically of Apoplasticaly 166 Photoassimilate is Distributed Between Different Metabolic Pathway and plant Organs 166 Photoassimilate May be Allocated to a Variety of Metabolic Functions in the Source or the Sink 167 Distribution of Photoassimilates Between Competing Sinks is Determined by Sink Strength 168 Xenobiotic Agrochemicals are Translocated in the Phloem 170 Summary 170 Chapter Review 171 Further Reading 171 Cellular Respiration Unlocking the Energy Stored In Photoassimilates 173 Cellular Respiration Consists of a Series of Pathways by which Photoassimilates are oxidized 174 Starch Mobilization 175 The Hydrolytic Degradation of Stomach Produces Glucose 175 α-Amylase Produce Maltose and Limit Destrins 176 β-Amylase Produce Maltose 176 Limit Dextrinase is a Debranching Enzyme 176 α-Glucosidase Hydrolyses Maltose 177 Starch Phosphorolytic Degradation of Starch 177 Fructan Mobilization is Constitutive 178 Glycolysis Converts Sugars to Pyruvic Acid 178 Hexoses Must be Phosphorylated to Enter Glycolysis 178 Triose Phosphates are Oxidized to Pyruvate 180 The Oxidation Pentose Phosphate Pathway is an Alternative Route for Glucose Metabolism 180 The Fate of Pyruvate Depend on the Availability of Molecular Oxygen 181 Oxidative Respiration is Carried Out by the Mitochindrion 182 In the Presence of Molecular Oxygen Pyruvate is Completely Oxidative to O2 and water By the Citric Acid Cycles 182 Electron Removed From Substrate in the Citric Acid Cycle are passed to Molecular Oxygen Through the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain 183 Energy is Conserved in the Form of ATP in Accordance with Chemiosmosis 185 Plants Contain Several Alternative Electron Transport Pathways 186 Plant Mitochondria Contain External Dehydrogenase 186 Plants Have a Rotenone -Insensitive NADH dehydrogenases 186 Plants Exhibits Cyanide-Resistant Respiration 187 Many Seeds Store Carbons as Oils that are Converted to Sugar 188 Respiration Provides Carbon Skeletons for Biosynthesis 189 Respiratory Rate Varies with Development and Metabolic State Respiration Rate Respond to Environmental Conditions 192 Light 192 Temperature 192 Oxygen Availability 193 Summary 193 Chapter Review Further Reading 194 Nitrogen Assimilation 195 The Nitrogen Cycles A Complex Pattern of Exchanges 195 Ammonification. Nitrification and Denitrification and Essential Process in the Nitrogen Cycle 196 Biological Nitrogen Fixation is Exclusively Prokaryotic 196 Some Nitrogen Fixating bacteria are Free-Living Organisms 196 Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Involves Specific Associations Between Bacteria and Plant 197 Legumes Exhibit Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation 197 Rhizobia Infect the Host Roots, Which Induce Nodule Development 198 The Biochemistry of Nitrogen Fixation 200 Nitrogen Fixation is Energetically Costly 201 Dinitrogenase is Sensitive to oxygen 202 Dinitrogenase Results in the Production of Hydrogen Gas 202 The Genetics of Nitrogen Fixation 203 NIF Gene Code for Dinitrogenase 203 NOD Genes and NIF Gene Regulate Nodulation 203 What is the Source of Home For Leghemoglobin 204 NH3 Produced by Nitrogen Fixation is Converted to Organic Nitrogen 204 Ammonium is Assimilated by GS/ GOGAT 204 PII Protein Regulate GS/ GOGAT 205 Fixed Nitrogen is Exported as Asparagine and Ureides 206 Plants Generally Take Up Nitrogen in the Form of Nitrate 207 Nitrogen Cycling Simultaneous import and Export 208 Agricultural and Ecosystem Productivity is Dependent on Nitrogen Supply 209 Summary 211 Chapter Review 211 Further Reading 211 Carbon and Nitrogen Assimilation and plant Productivity 213 Productivity Refers to an Increase in Biomass 213 Carbon Economy is Dependent on the Balance Between Photosynthesis and Respiration 214 Productivity is Influenced by a Variety of Environment Factors 215 Fluence Rate 215 Available CO2 216 Temperature 218 Soil Water Potential 219 Nitrogen Supply Limits Productivity 219 Leaf Factors 220 Summary 221 Chapter Review 222 Factor Reading 222 What is plant Stress? 223 Plant Respond to Stress in Several Different ways 224 Too Much Light Inhibits Photosynthesis 225 The DI Repair Cycle Overcomes Photodamage to PSII 227 Water Stress is Persistent Threat to Plant Survival 229 Water Stress leads to Membrane Damage 230 Photosynthesis is Particularly Sensitive to Water Stress 230 Stomata Respond to Water Deficit 230 Plant are Sensitive to Fluctuations In Temperature 233 Many Plant are Chilling Sensitive 233 High -Temperature Stress Causes Protein Denaturation 234 Insect Pests and Disease Represent Potential Biotic Stresses 235 Systemic Acquired Resistance Represents a Plants Immune Response 236 Jasmonates Mediate Insect and Disease Resistance 237 There are Feature Common to all Stresses 237 Summary 238 Chapter Review 238 Further Reading 238 Monitoring Plant Stress By Chlorophyll Fluorescence 238 Acclimation to Environmental Stress 241 Plant Acclimation is a Time -Dependent Phenomenon 242 Acclimation is Initiated by Rapid Short-Term Response 242 State Transitions Regulate Energy Distribution in Response to Changes to Spectral Distribution 242 Carotenoids Serve a Dual Function Light Harvesting and Photoprotection 242 Osmotic Adjustment is a Response to Water Stress 247 Low Temperatures Induce Lipid Unsaturation and Cold Regulated Gene in Cold Tolerant Plants 248 Q10 For Plant Respiration Varies as a Function of Temperature 248 Long Term Acclimation Alters Phenotype 249 Light Regulates Nuclear Gene Expression and Photoacclimation 249 Does the Photosynthesis Apparatus Respond to Changes in Light Quality ? 252 Acclimation to Drought Affects Shoot-Root Ratio and Leaf Area 253 Cold Acclimation Mimics Photoacclimation 254 Freezing Tolerance in Herbaceous Species is a Complex Interaction Between Light and Low Temperature 255 Cold Acclimated Plants Secrete Antifreeze Proteins 256 North Temperature Woody Plant Survive Freezing Stress 256 Plant Adjust Photosynthetic Capacity in Response to High Temperature 257 Oxygen May Protect During Acclimation to Various Stresses 258 Summary 259 Chapter Review 259 Further Reading 260 Adaptations to the Environment 261 Sun and Shade Adapted Plants Respond Differently to Irradiance 262 C4 Plants are Adapted to High Temperature and Drought 263 The C4 Syndrome is Another Biochemical Mechanism to Assimilate Co2 263 The C4 Syndrome is Usually Associated with Kranz Leaf Anatomy 265 The Syndrome is Differentially Sensitive to Temperature 265 The C4 Syndrome is Differentially Sensitive to Temperature 265 The C4 Syndrome is Associated with water Stress 266 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism is an Adaptation to Desert Life 267 Is CAM A Variation of the C4 Syndrome ? 268 CAM Plan an Particularly Suited to Dry Habitats 269 C4 and CAM Photosynthesis Require Precise Regulation and Temporal Integration 269 Plant Biomes Reflect Myriad Physiological Adaptations 270 Tropical Rain Forest Biomes Exhibits the Greatest Plant Biodiversity 270 Evapotranspiration is s Major Contributors to Weather 271 Desert Perennials are Adapted to Reduce Transpiration and Heat Load Desert Annuals Are Ephemeral 273 Summary 273 Chapter Review 274 Further Reading 274 Development: An Overview 275 Growth, Differentiation, and Development 275 Development is the sum of Growth and Differentiation 275 Growth is an Irreversible Increase to Size 276 Differentiation refers to To Qualitative Changes that Normally Accompany Growth 276 Meristems are Centers of Plant Growth 277 Seed Development and Germination 279 Seeds are formed in the Flower 279 Seed Development and Maturation 280 Seed Germination 281 The Level and Activities of Various Hormones Changes Dramatically During Seed Development 283 Many Seeds Have Additional Requirements for Germination 284 From Embryo to Adult 285 Senescence and Programmed Cell Death are the Find Stages of Development 286 Summary 287 Chapter Review 287 Further Reading 288 Development in a Mutant Weed 282 Growth and Development of Cells 289 Growth of Plant Cells is Complicated by the Presence of A cell wall 289 The Primary Cell wall is a Network of Cellulose Microfibrils and Cross- Linking Glycans 289 The Cellulose -Glycan lattice is Embedded in a Matrix of Pectin and Protein 290 Cellulose Microfibrils are Assembled at the Plasma Membrane as They Extruded into the Cell wall 292 Cell Division 292 The Cell Cycle 292 Cytokinesis 293 Plasmodesmata are Cytoplasmic Channels that Extend Through the Wall to connect the Protoplasts of Adjacent Cells 294 Cell walls and Cell Growth 294 Cell Growth is Division by Water Uptake and Limited by the Strength and Rigidity of the Cell Wall Extension of the Cell Wall Requires Wall Loosening Events that Enable Load Bearing Elements in the Wall to Yield to Turgor Pressure 296 Wall Loosening and Cell Expansion is Stimulated by Low ph and Expansion 297 In Maturing Cells a Secondary Cell Wall is Deposited on the Inside of the Primary Wall 298 Acontinous Stream of Signals Provides Information That Plant Cell Use to Modify Development 298 Signal Perception and Transduction 299 The G-Protein System is a Ubiquitous Receptor System 299 Signal Transduction Includes a Diverse Array of Second Messengers 300 Protein Kinase -Based Signaling 300 Phospholipid Based Signaling 300 Calcium -Based Signaling 301 Transcriptional -Based Signaling 303 There is Extensive Crosstalk Among Signal Pathways 303 Summary 304 Chapter Review 304 Further Reading 304 Cytoskeleton 295 Ubiquitin and Proteasomes-* Cleaning up Unwanted Proteins 302 Hormones I Auxins 305 The Hormone Concept in Plant 305 Auxins is Distributed Throughout the Plant 306 The Principal Auxins in Plants in Indole -3-Acetic Acid (IAA) 307 IAA ıs Synthesızed From the Amıno Acıd I-Tryptophan 309 Some Plants do not Requıre Tryptophan for IAA bıosynthesıs 310 IAA may be stored as Inactıve 310 IAA ıs Deactıvated by Oxıdatıon and Conjugatıon wıth Amıno Acıds 311 Auxıns ıs Involved ın Vırtually Every Stage of Plant Development 311 311 Auxın Regulates Vascular Dıfferentıatıon 311 Auxın Control the Growth of Auxiliary Buds 313 The Acıd -Growth Hypothesıs Explaıns Auxın Control of Cell Enlargement 314 Maıntenance of Auxıns Induced Growth and Other Auxın Effects Requıres Gene Activation 316 Many Aspects of Plant Developments are Lınked to the Polar Transport of Auxıns 317 Summary 320 Chapter Revıew 321 Further 321 Dıscoverıng Auxın 307 Commercıal Applıcatıons of Auxıns 314 Hormones II Gıbberellıns 323 There are a Large Number of Gıbberellıns 323 There are Three Prıncıples Sıtes For Gıbberellın Bıosynthesıs 324 Gıbberellıns are Terpenes Sharıng a Core Pathway wıth Several Other Hormones and a Wıde Range of Secondary Products 325 Gıbberellıns are Synthesızed from Geranylgeranyl Pyrophosphate (GGPP) 327 Gibberellins are Deactivated by 2β-Hydroxylation 329 Growth Retardants Block the Synthesis of Gibberellins 329 Gibberellins Transport is Poorly Understood 330 Gibberellins Affect Many Aspects of Plant Growth and Development Gibberellins Stimulate Hyper-elongation of Intact Stems Especially in Dwarf and Rosette Plant 330 Gibberellins Stimulate Mobilization of Nutrient Reserves During Germination of Cereal Grains 332 Gibberellins Act by Regulating Gene EXPRESSION 333 Summary 336 Chapter Review 336 Further Reading 339 Discovery of Gibberellins 325 Commercial Applications of Gibberellins 330 Dells Proteins and the Green Revolution 335 Hormones III Cytokines 339 339 Cytokines Biosynthesis Begins with the Condensation of an Isopentenyl Group with the Amino Group of Andesine 339 Cytokinin's may be Deactivated by Conjugation or Oxidation 340 Cytokinins are synthesized Primarily in the Root and Translocated in the Xylem 341 Cytokinin are Required for Cell Proliferation 343 Cytokinin Regulate Progression through the Cell Cycle 343 The Ratio of Cytikinins and Auxin Control Roots and Shoots Initiation in Callus Tissues and the Growth of Axillary Buds 344 Crown Gall Tumors are Genetically Engineered to Overproduce Cytokinin and Auxin 345 Cytokinin Delay Senescence 346 Cytokinin Have an Important Role in Maintaining the Shoot Meristem 347 Cytokinin Levels in the Shoot Apical Meristem Are Regulated by Master Control Gene 348 Cytokinin Receptor and Signaling 350 The Cytokinin Receptor is a Membrane -Based Histidine Kinase 350 The Cytokinin Signaling Chain Involves a Multistep Transfer of Phosphoryl Groups to Response Regulators 351 Summary 353 Chapter Review 353 Further Reading 354 The Discovery of Cytokinins 341 Tissue Culture has Made Possible Large-Scale Closing of Plants by Micropropagation 345 Hormones IV : Abscisic Acid Ethylene and Brassinosteroids 355 Abscisic Acid is Synthesized From a Carotenoid Precursor 355 Abscisic Acid is Synthesized to phaseic Acid by Oxidation 357 Abscisic Acid Regulate 357 Abscisic Acid Regulates Embryo Maturation and Seed Germination 358 Abscisic acid Mediates Response to Water Stress 358 Other Abscisic Acid Response 359 ABA perception and Signal Transduction 359 Ethylene is Synthesized From the Amino Acid Methionine 362 Excess Ethylene is Subject to Oxidation 362 The Study of Ethylene Presents a Unique Set of Problems 364 Ethylene Affects Many Aspects of Vegetative Developments 364 Ethylene Receptors and Signaling 365 Brassinosteriods 367 Brassinosteriods are Polyhydroxylated Sterols Derived From the Triterpene Squalene 367 Several Route for Deactivation of Brassinsteroids have been Identified 369 Braasinolde Receptors and Signaling 369 Summary 369 Chapter Review 370 Further Readıng 370 The Dıscovery of Abscısıc Acıd 356 The Discovery Ethylene 363 Mitogenactivated Protein Kinetics: A Widespread Mechanism For Signal Transduction 366 Photomorphogenesis Responding to Light 373 Photomorphogenesis is Initiated by Photoreceptors 373 Phytochromes Responding to Red and Far Red Light 374 Photoreversibility is the Hallmark of Phytochrome Action 376 Conversion of Pr to Pfr in Etiolated Seeding leads to a loss of both Pfr and Total phytochrome 377 Light Established a State of Dynamic Photoequilibrium between pr and pfr 378 Photochrome Response can be Grouped According to their fluence Requirements Cryptochrome: Responding to Blue and UV-A Light 379 Photochrome and Cryptochrome mediate numerous Developmental Responses 379 Seed Germination 379 De-Etiolation 380 Shade Avoidance 381 Detecting end of Day Signals 381 382 Rapid Photochrome Response 382 Phy A may Function to Detect the Presence of Light 383 Chemistry and Mode of Action of Phytochrome and Cryptochrome 383 Phytochrome is a Phycobiliprotin 383 phytochrome Signal Transduction 384 Cryptochrome Structure is similar to DNA repairs enzymes 386 Cryptochrome Signal Transduction 386 Some plant Responses are Regulated by UV-B Light 387 De- Etiolation in Arabidopsis : A Case Study in Photoreceptor Interactions 387 Summary 388 Chapter Review 389 Further Reading Historical Perspectives -The Discovery of Phytochrome 389 Tropisms and Nastic Movements: Orienting Plants in Space 391 Phototropism: Reaching for the Sun 392 Phototropism is a response to a light Gradient 392 Phototropism is a Blue light Response 393 Phototropism Orients a plants for Optional Photosynthesis 393 Fluence Response Curves Illustrate the Complexity of Phototropic Response 394 The Phototropiv Response is Attributed to a Lateral Redistribution of Diffusible Auxin 395 Phototropism and Related Response are Regulated by a Family of Blue Sensitive Flavoproteins 396 A Hybrid Red/Blue Light Photoreceptor has been Isolated form a Fern 397 Phytotropin Activity and Signal Chain 397 Phototropism in Green Plants is not well Understood 398 Gravitropism 398 Gravitropism is more than Simple Up and Down 399 The Gravitational Stimulus is the Product of Intensity and Time 399 Root Gravitropism Occurs in four Phases 401 Nastic Movements 405 Nyctinasty Movements are Rhythmic Movements Involving Reversible Turgor Changes 406 Nyctinasty Movements are due to Ion Fluxes and Resulting Osmotic Responses in Specialized Motor Cells 407 409 Summary 410 Chapter Review 411 Further Reading 411 Methods in the Study of Gravitropism 400 Measuring Time Controlling Development by photoperiod and Endogenous 413 Photoperiodism Photoperiodic Response may be characterized by a variety of response types 414 Critical Day Length Defines Short-Day and Long -Day Response 415 Plants Actually measure the Length of the Dark Period 417 Phytochrome and Cryptochrome are the Photoreceptors for Photoperiodism 418 The Photoperiodic Signal is perceived by the leaves 419 Control of Flowering by Photoperiod Requires a transmissible Signal 420 Photoperiodism normally Requires a period of High Fluence Light Before or After the Dark Period 421 The Biological Clock 423 Clock Driven Rhythms persist Under Constant Conditions 423 Light Roots the Biological Clock on a daily basis 423 The Circadian Clock is temperature Compensated 426 The Circadian Clock is a Significant Component in Photoperiodic Time Measurement 427 Daylength Measurement Involves an Interaction Between an External Light Signal and a Circadian Rhythm 428 The Circadian Clock is a Negative Feedback loop 429 Photoperiodism in Nature 430 Summary 431 Chapter Review 432 Further Reading 432 Historical Perspectives: The Discovery of Photoperiodism 414 Historical Perspectives The Biological Clock 422 Flowering and Fruit Development 433 Flowering Initiation and Developments Involves Sequential Action of three Sets of Genes 433 Flowering -Time Genes Influence the Duration of Vegetative Growth 434 Floral -Identity Genes and Organ-Identity Genes Overlap in Time and Function 436 Temperature can Alter the Flowering Response to Photoperiod 437 Vernalization Occurs most Commonly in Winter Animals and Biennials 438 The Effective Temperature for Vernalization is Variable 439 The Vernalization Treatment is Perceived by the Shoots Apex 440 The Vernalized State is Transmissible 440 Gibberellin and Vernalization Operate Through Independent Genetic Pathways 440 Three Genes Determines the Vernalization Requirements in Cereals 441 Fruits set and Developments is Regulated by Hormones 442 The Development of Fleshy Fruits can be Divided into Five Phase 442 Fruits set is Triggered by Auxin 442 Ripening is Triggered by Ethylene in Climacteric Fruits 444 Summary 445 Chapter Review 445 446 Ethylene its a Gas 445 Temperature : Plant Development and Distribution 447 Temperature in the Plant Environment 447 Bud Dormancy Bud Dormancy is Induced by Photoperiod 449 A Period of LOW temperature IS required 451 Seed Dormancy 451 Numerous Factors Influence Seed Dormancy 451 Temperature has a Significant Impact on Seed Dormancy 453 Thermotropism is a Response to Alternating Temperature 454 Temperature Influence Plant Distribution 454 Summary 457 Chapter Review 457 Further Reading 457 Bulbs and Corns 450 Secondary Metabolites 459 Secondary Metabolites A.K.A Natural Products 459 Terpenes 460 The Terpenes are a Chemically and Functionally Diverse Group of Molecules 460 Terpenes are Constituents of Essentials Oils 460 Steroids and Sterols are Tetracyclic Triterpenoids 462 Glycosides 463 Saponins are Terpenes Glycosides With Detergents Properties 464 Cardiac Glycosides are Highly Toxic Steroids Glycosides 465 Cyanogenic glycosides are A Natural Source of Hydrogen Cyanide Glucosinolates are Sulfur Containing Precursors to Mustard Oils 467 Polyterpenes Includes the Carotenoids Pigments and Naturals Rubber 462 Glycosides 463 Saponins are Terpenes Glycosides with Detergents Properties 464 Cyanogenic Glycosides are A Natural Source of Hydrogen Cyanide 466 Glucosinolates are Sulphur-Containing Precursors to Mustard Oils 466 Phenylpropanoids 467 Shikimic Acid is a Key InIntermediate in the Synthesis of Both Aromatic Amino Acids and Phynylpropanoids 468 the Simplest Phenolic Molecules are Essentially deaminated Versions of the Corresponding Amino Acids Coumarin and Coumarin Derivatives Function as Anticoagulant s Lignin is a Major Structural Component of Secondary Cell Wall Flavonoid and Stilbenes have parallel Biosynthesis Pathway Tannins Denature Proteins and Add an Astringent Taste to Foods Secondary Metabolites are Active Against Insect5s and Disease Some Terpenes and Isoflavones Have Insecticidal and Anti-Microbial and Anti-Microbial Activity Recognizing Potential Pathogens Salicylic Acids Shikimic Acid Derivative Triggers Systemic Acquired Resistance Jasmonates are Limited to Ubiquitin-Related Protein Degradation Alkaloids are a Large Famiy of Chemically Unrelated Molecules Alkaloids are noted Primarily for their Pharmacological Properties and Medical Applications Like Many other Secondary Metabolites Alkaloids Serves as Preformed Chemical Defense ,molecules Summary Chapter Review Further Reading Building Block: Lipids Proteins and Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Carbohydrates Monosaccharides polysaccharides Index/Glossary
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Bitki fizyolojisi
Plant physiology
571.2 / H67 2008